| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Coastal zone extent | Pruett and Cimino 2000, unpublished data. Estimates of coastline length by country calculated from a globally consistent data set (World Vector Shoreline) at a uniform scale of 1:250,000. Other estimates calculated from Global Maritime Boundaries Database (Veridian-MRJ Technology Solutions, 2000). |
| Characterization of natural features | UNEP-WCMC 1999a and 1999b (coral
reefs and mangroves); UNEP-WCMC 1998 (wetlands); NSIDC 1999 (sea ice);
LOICZ 1998 (coastal geomorphology); ESRI 1992 and 1993 (river
locations); IOC et al. 1997 (coastline location); Stutz et al. 1999; and Stutz 1999, unpublished data (barrier island locations). The typology represents a hierarchical summary of coastal features relevant to the goods and services discussed in this report. Scale and quality of input data vary. This analysis does not directly address climate, currents, or substrate. |
| Extent of natural habitats | Spalding et al. 1997 (mangroves); Spalding and Grenfell 1997 (coral reefs); UNEP-WCMC 1998 (wetlands); Even though these data sets are incomplete and of varying quality, they provide an indication of the extent of these habitat types around the world. |
| Loss of natural habitats | Mangrove and coastal wetland loss statistics by country, compiled from multiple sources. The inconsistent habitat classification schemes and the different time periods covered make assessing change difficult. |
| Natural versus
altered land cover within 100 km of coastline |
GLCCD 1998. Summary of International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme land cover classes for land areas within 100 km of coastline. The coarse resolution (1km) and the classification scheme which focuses on terrestrial systems does not adequately capture the complexity of the coastal zone, but provides an indicator of the modification of coastal habitats. |
| Human population
within 100 km of coastline |
CIESEN et al. 2000. The original data sources are national population censuses by administrative district. Year of census and resolution vary. Estimates are standardized for 1990 and 1995. |
| Disturbance to benthic community—distribution of trawling grounds | Partial global summary of trawling grounds in 24 countries by McAllister et al. (1999) executed for this study. Does not show the intensity of trawling within each area. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ In 1995, over
2.2 billion people —39 percent of the world's population— lived within
100 km of a coast, an increase from 2 billion people in 1990. The
coastal area accounts for only 20 percent of all land area. ¨ Nineteen percent of all lands within 100 km of the coast (excluding Antarctica and water bodies) are classified as altered, meaning they are in agricultural or urban uses; 10 percent are semialtered, involving a mosaic of natural and altered vegetation; and 71 percent fall within the least modified category. A large percentage of this least modified category includes many uninhabited areas in northern latitudes. ¨ Many important coastal habitats, such as mangroves, wetlands, seagrasses, and coral reefs, are disappearing at a fast pace. Anywhere from 5 to 80 percent of original mangrove area in various countries, where such data are available, is believed to have been lost. Extensive losses have occurred particularly in the last 50 years. ¨ In the 24 countries for which sufficient data were available, trawling grounds encompass 8.8 million km², of which about 5.2 million km² are located on the continental shelves. This represents about 57 percent of the total continental shelf area of these countries. ¨ Though highly scale dependent, this analysis presents a new standardized estimate of coastline length by country. The associated total coastline length for the world is 1.6 million kilometers. This study also presents new estimates of ocean surface area within the 200 nautical miles limits of most countries. |
¨ Information on the
location and extent of coastal ecosystems is very incomplete and
inconsistent at the global level. ¨ Historical data describing previous extent of habitats, against which we might hope to measure change, are very limited. Where no historical data exist, the possibility of predictive mapping should be considered, using existing climatic, oceanographic, and topographic data combined with biogeographic information. ¨ There is an urgent need for better and more consistent classification schemes and data sets characterizing the world's coasts. Particular effort needs to be focussed on mapping the distribution of sandy and rocky shores, salt marshes, seagrasses, tidal mudflats, and lagoons. ¨ Coastal habitats occur over relatively small spatial units, are often submerged, and are, therefore, difficult to assess with the coarse-scale global sensors often used for other terrestrial ecosystems. High-resolution remote sensing capabilities in this area are improving rapidly, but are not yet being widely applied. ¨ The effects of human disturbances to ecosystems, such as trawling, are poorly documented. More accurate evaluation of impacts will require higher resolution data as well as site exploration. |
| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Natural versus altered land cover within 100 km of coastline | GLCCD 1998. Rough indicator of the likelihood of natural shoreline replaced by artificial structures. Beach area/profile Cambers 1997. Measured beach erosion/accretion data available for a limited number of countries, with inconsistent time and area coverage. |
| Severity and impact of natural hazards | Only case studies available. Mostly measured in monetary units and of limited value for comparisons. |
| Vulnerability to
erosion and coastal hazard |
Physical vulnerability was estimated by characterization of natural features. (See section on Extent and Change.) Level of development was based on population density (CIESIN et al. 2000). |
| Low-lying areas | USGS 1996 (elevation data). Based upon a coarse-scale (approximately 1 km grid resolution) data set reflecting elevation for the globe, we identified land areas less than one, and between one and two meters elevation. Local hydraulic and geophysical factors, such as subsidence, tectonic uplift, tides, and storms, are not taken into account because of the lack of data. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ Human
modification of the shoreline has altered currents and sediment
delivery, enhancing coastlines in some areas and starving beaches in
others. ¨ Coastal habitats with natural buffering and adaptation capacities are being modified by development and replaced by artificial structures. Thus, in monetary terms, the damage from storm surges has increased. ¨ Increasing development in coastal areas is placing more population, infrastructure, and associated economic investments at risk. ¨ Rising sea levels projected as a result of global warming may threaten some coastal settlements and small island-states. |
¨ The function of shoreline
stabilization provided by many natural coastal features is not well
documented quantitatively. ¨ Data on conversion of coastal habitat and shoreline erosion are inadequate. ¨ No comprehensive data are available to assess shoreline change or sediment flows. ¨ Because of the dynamic character of the natural processes acting upon the shoreline, and because humans have often responded in an equally dramatic way, it is difficult to distinguish natural from human-induced changes. ¨ Information on long-term effects of human modifications on shorelines is lacking. ¨ Nonmonetary measures of severity and damage from natural hazards are anecdotal. ¨ Sea level rise and storm effects resulting from climate change are speculative. |
| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Eutrophication parameters | Bricker et al. 1999 (U.S. data only). Data have incomplete temporal coverage in some areas and are insufficient in detecting clear trends. Similar data are available for other developed countries but were not used in this study. |
| Harmful algal blooms (HABs) events | HEED 1999. Compiled from reported public health events, as well as mortality and morbidity events for marine organisms. The data do not show the magnitude of each event. In general, there are limited ground-based monitoring initiatives with regular data collection on HABs events around the world. |
| Global occurrence of hypoxic zones | Diaz and Rosenberg 1995; Diaz 1999. Occurrences are compiled from literature and therefore may be biased toward areas where better reporting mechanisms exist. Most observations are from industrialized countries. The data do not include the duration and size of each event. |
| Shellfish bed closures | NOAA 1997 (U.S. data only). There is insufficient data coverage for temporal trend analysis and, often, inconsistent criteria for bed closures. Various country programs exist, mostly in developed countries, but the data are not comparable. |
| Beach closures | NRDC 1998; FEEE 2000. Various local monitoring programs exist, but no comprehensive data are available. A standardized guideline for monitoring recreational water quality is being developed by the World Health Organization. |
| Beach tar balls | JODC 1999 (Japanese data only).
Few of the reported observations show the magnitude of contamination (i.e., size and concentration). Various country and regional monitoring programs exist, but the data are not harmonized and are not complete for all countries and years. |
| Persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metal accumulation in marine organisms |
NOAA 1999a (U.S. data only). Mussel Watch-type programs that monitor accumulation of heavy metals and POPs exist in other countries, but were not considered in this analysis. |
| Oil spills (frequency and volume) | ITOPF 1998. The data presented here only include accidental spills over 7 tonnes in quantity. The extensive ITOPF database contains information on both the spill (amount and type of oil spilt, cause, and location) and the vessel involved. Data are compiled from published sources as well as from vessel owners and their insurers. Reporting of small operational spillages is incomplete. |
| Solid waste accumulation on beaches | Center for Marine Conservation 1998. Data are based on coastal cleanup surveys that include parts of 75 countries worldwide. The information, however, is incomplete on the frequency of the cleanup and the area covered. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION
STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ Although some
industrial countries have improved coastal water quality by reducing
input of certain persistent organic pollutants, chemical pollutant
discharges are increasing overall as agriculture intensifies and new
synthetic compounds are developed. ¨ As the extent of mangroves, coastal wetlands, and seagrasses declines, coastal habitats are losing their pollutant-filtering capacity. ¨ On a global basis, nutrient inputs to coastal waters seem to be increasing because of population increase and agricultural intensification. ¨ Over the past two decades, the frequency of recorded HABs resulting in mass mortality and morbidity of marine organisms has increased significantly. ¨ Globally reported occurrences of hypoxia indicate that some coastal ecosystems have exceeded their ability to absorb nutrients. ¨ Although large-scale marine oil spills are declining, oil discharges from land-based sources and regular shipping operations are believed to be increasing. |
¨ Global data on extent and
change of key coastal habitats, such as wetlands and seagrasses, are
not available. ¨ Many national and regional monitoring programs exist for a variety of pollutants, but the completeness and accuracy of data collected varies. Standardized sampling methodologies and parameters are necessary for making comparisons on a global basis. ¨ Increased direct monitoring of water quality parameters, coupled with using satellite sensors, can greatly improve our knowledge of the condition of the world's coastal waters. ¨ Current information relies heavily on anecdotal observations of extreme events, such as HABs, and not on continuous monitoring. ¨ More than 70,000 synthetic chemicals have been discharged into the ocean, and only a small percentage of these have been monitored—typically by human health standards, and not by ecological impact. ¨ Runoff and routine maintenance of oil infrastructure are estimated to account for more than 70 percent of the total annual oil discharge into the ocean, but actual data regarding such nonpoint sources are not available. |
| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Species richness | Littoral community: Groombridge
and Jenkins 1996 (diversity of seabirds, marine turtles, seals, and sea
lions by region); Spalding 1998 (mangroves); UNEP-WCMC 1999c
(distribution and species richness of marine turtles); UNEP-WCMC 1999d
(pinnipeds, unpublished data prepared for this study). Information on
species richness is only available for some better-known species groups. Continental shelves: Groombridge and Jenkins 1996 (diversity of seagrasses, molluscs, shrimp, lobsters, sharks, and cetaceans); Veron 1995 (corals). The data are limited to better-documented species. |
| Conservation values | Olson and Dinerstein 1998; Sullivan Sealey and Bustamante 1999; UNEP-WCMC 1999 (marine protected areas); CI 2000. Criteria for evaluation of conservation value, designation of the status, and degree of protection are highly varied. |
| Threatened species | IUCN 1996. Global list developed
through field observation and expert judgment. Application of the criteria for threatened status to littoral and marine species requires further evaluation. |
| Habitat degradation—coral bleaching | NOAA-NESDIS and UNEP-WCMC 1999,
unpublished data. Data on observations of coral bleaching were compiled from multiple sources. Coral reefs: ICLARM 1999. Observed impacts of pollution, sedimentation, and destructive fishing practices on coral reefs. |
| Threats to habitat | Littoral zone: Evans 1994
(Important Bird Areas). The criteria for ranking the level of threat are qualitative and rely on expert opinion. |
| Threats to ecosystem structure | Invasive species data compiled
from multiple sources. There are no global data sets on introduced species, although comprehensive data are available for some countries and regions. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ Coastal
habitats that serve as nurseries for many species are disappearing at
an alarming rate. Human modification and disturbance to those habitats
are widespread. ¨ Growth in the number of marine protected areas over the last century indicates increased awareness toward protecting the coastal environment although methods and degree of protection vary greatly among countries. ¨ Over 25 different coral diseases or variants are recorded in over 50 countries worldwide and the vast majority of records are from the 1970s onward. Reports of coral bleaching have also increased significantly in recent years. ¨ Even some commercial fish species, such as Atlantic Cod, five species of tuna, and haddock are now threatened globally, as are several species of whales, seals, and sea turtles. ¨ Invasive species are frequently reported in enclosed seas, such as the Black Sea, where the introduction of the Atlantic comb jellyfish caused the collapse of the thriving anchovy fishery. |
¨ Information on the
distribution of remaining natural coastal habitats is only available
for some areas. Detailed maps are particularly lacking for submerged
habitats, such as seagrasses, coral reefs, salt marshes, and tidal
mudflats. ¨ Loss of coastal habitats (such as mangroves or wetlands) is reported in many parts of the world, but little is documented quantitatively. ¨ Species diversity is not well inventoried and population assessments are only available for some keystone species, such as sea turtles and whales. ¨ Available information on the distribution of species needs to be consolidated and integrated with information on habitat distribution. ¨ Information on invasive species is limited because of difficulties in identifying and inventorying them. Assessing their impact on the native ecosystem is also necessary but currently lacking. ¨ Limited information is available on the condition of ecosystems at the habitat level. For example, anecdotal observations are available for the world's coral reefs, reflecting coral bleaching, disease, and human impacts, but little data have been compiled on coral condition, such as change in live coral cover. ¨ Indicators of change in ecosystem structure have not been fully explored." |
| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Analysis of the condition of fish stocks | Grainger and Garcia 1996 and Garcia and De Leiva Moreno 2000. Analyses include stock assessments covering the period 1950–1994 for the top 200 commercial fisheries, and assessments of 441 fish stocks covering the period 1974–1999. |
| Commercial harvest of important fish stocks | FAO 1999e. Data refer to marine fisheries production for selected species in the Northwest Atlantic. |
| Percentage change in catch from the peak year | FAO 1999e and 1999f. Current catch figures for each FAO fishing area were compared to historical peak catches for that same area. |
| Change in trophic composition of fish catch | Analysis conducted by Caddy,
Garibaldi, and Grainger (1999) at FAO Fisheries Department for this
study. The analysis uses three indicators to assess the change in
species composition of the catch in each FAO fishing area, with the
exclusion of the Arctic and Antarctic. The three indicators are: a. sum of catches for the top five species in each of four trophic categories over the 1950–97 period; b. trend relationship between the piscivores and zooplanktivores catches; and c. percentage of catches of the different trophic levels early (1950–54) and late (l993–97) in the series. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ Global marine
fish production has increased sixfold since 1950, but the rate of
increase annually for fish caught in the wild has slowed from 6 percent
in the 1950s and 1960s to 0.6 percent in 1995–96. ¨ In 1997, fish and shellfish provided 16.5 percent of the total animal protein consumed by humans worldwide. Of the 30 countries most dependent on fish as a protein source, all but 4 are in the developing world. ¨ The capacity of coastal and marine ecosystems to produce fish for human harvest is highly degraded by overfishing, destructive trawling techniques, and loss of coastal nursery areas. ¨ Seventy-five percent of all fish stocks for which information is available are in urgent need of better management. Twenty-eight percent are already depleted from past overfishing or in imminent danger of depletion from current overharvesting, and fortyseven percent are being fished at their biological limit and therefore vulnerable to depletion if fishing intensity increases. ¨ The percentage catch of low-value species in the harvest has risen, as the catch from higher-value species has plateaued or declined, masking some effects of overfishing. This change in the piscivore/zooplanktivore ratio provides some evidence of likely ecosystem change. ¨ Notable ecosystem changes have occurred over the last half century in some fishery areas, such as the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific. ¨ Some of the recent increase in the marine fish harvest comes from aquaculture, which has more than doubled in production since 1990. ¨ Worldwide, some 30 to 40 percent more harvest capacity exists than the resource can withstand. ¨ Bycatch levels are also high. FAO estimates the amount of fish discarded at about 20 million metric tons per year. This figure is the equivalent of about 25% of the reported annual production from marine capture fisheries. ¨ Expansion of oceanic fisheries still continues, with a start now being made at exploitation of deep-water resources, which to date are relatively unprotected by international agreements and regulations. |
¨ FAO fisheries production
statistics are limited to providing proximate information on commercial
fish population trends and are, therefore, insufficient to assess the
capacity of coastal and marine ecosystems to provide food. ¨ The FAO database on marine fisheries landings is the most complete data set at the global level; however it has important limitations. Some of the main problems are that much of the catch is not reported at the species level, particularly in the Indian Ocean and Central Pacific, and the subsistence and smallscale fisheries sector is underrepresented in the data collection efforts. ¨ Catch statistics are also biased as a result of unreported discarding, misreporting of harvests, and exclusion of all information on illegal fishing. ¨ Data are fragmentary on how many boats are deployed, and how much time is spent fishing, which obscures the full impact of fishing on ecosystems. ¨ No comprehensive data are available for average fish size, which would help in the assessment of the condition of particular fish populations. ¨ More extensive stock assessments are necessary to identify Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for various commercially important species. |
| PAGE MEASURES AND INDICATORS | DATA SOURCES AND COMMENTS |
| Value of tourism and
employment in the tourism sector |
WTTC 1999. Value of tourism is estimated in terms of dollars per year, and employment in terms of jobs in the sector. Statistics are not specific to coastal tourism, but to tourism in general. |
| Importance of tourism to the economy | CTO 1997 (Caribbean data only). Data are expressed in dollars as a percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and number of jobs in the tourism sector as percent of total employment. |
| Tourist arrivals | CTO 1997 (Caribbean data only). |
| Equitable distribution of tourism benefit—leakage of tourism revenue | Smith and Jenner1992; Wells 1997. Percentage of gross tourism receipts collected by non-local service providers. |
| CONDITIONS AND TRENDS | INFORMATION STATUS AND NEEDS |
| ¨ The travel and
tourism industry is the fastest growing sector of the global economy.
It is estimated to have generated US$3.5 trillion and almost 200
million jobs globally in 1999. Coastal tourism is a major portion of the gross domestic product in many small island nations. ¨ Impacts of tourism on the environment are generally local and extremely diverse. Impacts depend upon the local environment, size and growth rate of the tourism sector, and nature of the tourism facilities involved. ¨ The tourist trade has degraded some areas, but global evidence is insufficient to judge the aggregate capacity of coastal areas to support tourism. As coastal areas are degraded, however, the types of tourism supported can become more limited. ¨ The degree to which a local economy benefits from tourism varies tremendously, depending on the habitat (resource), ownership and investments, and management of the tourism activities. ¨ Currently, 21 European countries participate in the Blue Flag Campaign, a certification program for “sustainable” tourism. In 2000, 1,873 beaches and 652 marinas were awarded the Blue Flag, a dramatic increase over a decade, indicating heightened interest from tourist facilities in adopting more efficient and environmentally sound practices. |
¨ Not all countries report
tourism statistics, and typically, only national data on tourism are
available, rather than data specific to the coastal zone. ¨ Comprehensive information on the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of tourism is not available or is documented only qualitatively. ¨ No standard measure of tourism intensity exists. ¨ Information on the benefit of tourism to the local economy is very limited. ¨ Marine protected areas and tourism certification programs could help in collecting useful information on the value of nature-based tourism and the degree of benefits and impacts of overall tourism development to the local people and economy. ¨ A few tourism certification programs with varied criteria exist but no comprehensive data are available. ¨ The importance of assessing local capacity to physically and socially accommodate tourism development has been acknowledged. However, no standard indicator to measure this capacity has been developed. |