INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
Alexandre Kiss and Dinah Shelton,
Third Edition
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Abbreviations xvi
Chronological Table of Treaties and
Other International Instruments
xviii
Table of European Community Law xxxv
Table of Cases xl
Introduction 1
A. Concept and Scope of the
“Environment” and “Environmental Law” 1
B. The Necessity of International Law 2
PART I: STRUCTURE AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Chapter 1: Foundations of
International Environmental Law 9
A. Religion and Philosophy 9
1. Religious Sources 9
2. Utilitarianism 10
3. Equity 11
a. Intra-Generational Equity 11
b. Inter-Generational Equity: Rights of Future Generations 11
c. Inter-Species Equity 12
C. Economics 15
D. International Law 16
1. Sovereignty 16
2. Cooperation 17
3. Common Concern of Humanity 19
4. Common Heritage of Mankind 21
E. Conclusions 21
Chapter 2: Origin and Evolution of
International Environmental Law 25
A. International Environmental Law Before the Stockholm Conference 25
B. The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 27
C. From Stockholm to Rio 29
1. Global Instruments 30
2. Regional Instruments 32
3. Customary International Law 33
D. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 33
E. From Rio to Johannesburg 35
F. The World Summit on Sustainable Development 38
Chapter 3: The Sources of
International Environmental Law 41
A. International Conventions 41
1. The Nature of Obligations 42
2. Framework Agreements 46
3. Interim Application 46
4. Mechanisms and Organs of Cooperation 46
5. Compliance Procedures 47
6. Adaptation and Evolution of Obligations 48
B. Customary International Law 49
C. General Principles of Law 49
D. Judicial Decisions and Doctrine 51
E. Other Sources of Obligation 51
1. Resolutions and Decisions of
International Organizations 51
2. Decisions of COPs/MOPs 52
3. Action Plans and Programs 53
4. Standardization 54
5. Codes of Conduct 55
6. State/Private Contracts 57
F. Conclusions 57
Chapter 4: Institutions and Civil
Society 59
A. Functions 60
B. Division of Tasks 61
C. Global Organizations 61
1. United Nations 61
a. United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) 62
b. Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) 64
c. International Law Commission 65
d. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 66
e. Other UN bodies 66
2. UNESCO 67
3. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 67
4. World Health Organization (WHO) 68
5. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 69
6. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 69
7. International Maritime Organization (IMO) 70
8. International Labor Organization (ILO) 71
9. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 71
10. World Trade Organization (WTO) 71
1. Council of Europe 72
2. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 73
3. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 74
4. European Union (EU) 75
5. Organization of American States (OAS) 79
6. South Pacific Regional Organizations 80
7. Organization of African Unity/African Union 81
E. Sub-Regional and Bilateral Organizations 82
F. Institutions Established by Multilateral Environmental Conventions 83
G. International Financial Institutions 86
1. World Bank 86
2. Global Environmental Facility (GEF) 88
3. International Financial Corporation (IFC) 88
4. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) 89
5. European Bank of Investment 89
6. Inter-American Development Bank 89
7. African Development Bank 90
8. Asian Development Bank 90
H. Non-Governmental Organizations and Civil Society 91
1. The Role of NGOs 91
2. World Conservation Union (IUCN) 94
3. Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) 95
4. Civil Society 96
Chapter 5: Customary International Law
and Principles 99
A. The Regulation of Transfrontier Pollution 99
1. Definition of Transfrontier
Pollution 99
2. Historic Approaches 101
a. Claims of Absolute Sovereignty 101
b. Abuse of Rights 101
c. The Right to be Free from transfrontier pollution 102
3. Current Rules 105
a. Respect for the Environment of other
States and Commons Areas 105
b. Notification of Imminent Harm 106
c. Assistance in Emergencies 108
d. Advance Notification and Consultation 110
e. Equality of access to administrative or judicial procedures 112
1. Prevention 113
2. Precaution 114
3. The “Polluter pays” principle 117
4. Sustainable Development 119
5. Protection, Preservation and Conservation 120
C. Conclusions 122
Chapter 6: Implementing International
Environmental Law: Techniques and
Procedures 125
A. Introduction 125
B. Regulatory Measures 125
1. Standard-Setting 126
a. Process Standards 126
b. Product Standards 127
c. Emission Standards 127
d. Quality Standards 128
2. Restrictions and Prohibitions 128
a. Limits or Bans 128
b. Taking and Trade Measures 129
c. Land Use Regulation 130
1. Criteria and Procedures 133
2. European Community Law 133
3. Procedures of International Financial Institutions 134
a. World Bank 134
b. International Finance Corporation 135
c. Regional Banks 135
E. Strategic Environmental Evaluation 139
F. Licensing and Permitting 140
1. Purpose and Goals 140
2. Procedures 140
G. Prior Informed Consent 141
H. Economic Measures 142
1. Taxation 143
2. Loans 144
3. Insurance 144
4. Grants and Subsidies 144
5. Negotiable Permits and Joint Implementation 146
6. Deposits 146
7. Labeling 146
I. Monitoring and Surveillance 147
J. Environmental Management and Audits 148
K. Conlusions 149
Chapter 7: Compliance and Dispute
Settlement 151
A. National Enforcement of International Environmental Norms 151
1. Administrative Procedures 151
2. Civil Liability 152
a. Adjudicative Jurisdiction 152
b. Choice of Law 153
c. Assessing Damages 153
d. Execution of Foreign Judgments 156
e. Treaty Regimes of Liability and Compensation 156
i. Marine Oil Pollution 156
ii. Nuclear Operations 159
iii. Hazardous Wastes 160
iv. The Lugano Convention 160
3. Penal Law 162
1. Reporting Obligations 165
2. Verification and Non-Compliance Procedures 167
3. World Bank Inspection Panels 171
C. State Responsibility and Liability 172
1. Overview 173
2. Implementation of State Responsibilty 174
a. Causation 174
b. Attributing the Pollution 175
c. Reparations 175
d. Procedural Issues 176
e. Harm to the Global Commons 177
f. Jurisprudence 177
3. State Liability for Injurious Consequences of Lawful Acts 179
1. Arbitration 181
2. The International Court of Justice 181
3. The Law of the Sea Tribunal 183
4. World Trade Organization 187
E. International Criminal Law 187
PART II: SECTORAL AND TRANS-SECTORAL
REGULATION
Chapter 8: Protection of Biological
Diversity 191
A. Concepts and Definitions 191
B. Loss of Biological Diversity 192
C. Development of Legal Norms 193
D. General International Instruments 194
1. Global Instruments 194
a. Convention on Biological Diversity
194
b. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
197
2. Regional Instruments 199
a. Africa 199
b. The Americas 201
c. Europe 202
d. Asia and the Pacific 203
1. Habitat Protection 205
a. Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance (Ramsar) 205
b. UNESCO World Heritage Convention 207
c. Protocols to Regional Seas Agreements 211
2. Regulation of Trade 212
3. Driftnet Fishing 216
1. Marine Living Resources 217
a. Fisheries 219
b. Marine Turtles 222
c. Marine Mammals 225
d. Seals 226
e. Polar Bears 228
2. Terrestrial Species 229
a. Forests 229
b. Vicuna 231
c. European bats 232
d. Birds 232
H. Invasive or Alien Species 237
I. Conclusions 238
Chapter 9: Soil 243
A. The UN Desertification Convention 244
B. General Norms on Soil Protection 246
Chapter 10: Fresh Waters 249
A. Overview 251
B. General Rules 251
1. Global Norms 251
2. Regional Regulation 253
C. From Transfrontier Pollution Control to Shared Resource Management
257
1. Europe 257
2. North America 261
3. South America 261
4. Africa 262
5. Asia 262
D. Boundary Waters Case Studies 263
1. The Danube 263
2. U.S.-Mexico Boundary Waters 267
E. Conclusions 270
Chapter 11: The Marine Environment 273
A. Overview 273
B. Historical Evolution 274
C. Rights and Duties of States in Maritime Areas 279
1. Flag State Jurisdiction 280
2. Port State Jurisdiction 280
3. Coastal State Jurisdiction 282
D. Comprehensive Regional Treaties 283
E. Combating Different Forms of Pollution 286
1. Vessel Source Pollution 286
2. Marine Pollution Transported by Air 289
3. Dumping of Wastes 290
4. Exploration and Exploitation of the Sea-Bed 293
5. Land-Based Pollution 296
6. Emergencies 299
a. Preventive actions 301
b. Responsive actions 302
7. Intervention on the High Seas 303
8. Responsibility and Damages for Harm 304
Chapter 12: Atmosphere, Stratosphere
and Climate 307
A. Overview 307
B. International Efforts to Control Air Pollution 310
1. Initial Legal Approaches 310
2. International Treaties to Combat Air Pollution 311
3. Legislation of the European Union 316
C. Protection of the Ozone Layer 317
D. Anthropogengic Climate Change 320
Chapter 13: Regulating Threats to the
Environment 329
A. Toxic and Dangerous Products 329
1. Production and Use 330
2. Trade and Transport 331
B. Wastes 333
1. Waste Management 334
2. Transfrontier Movements 336
C. Regulating Hazardous Industries 340
D. Radioactivity 340
1. Security of Nuclear Materials 341
2. Nuclear Accidents 342
3. Radioactive Wastes 345
E. Biotechnology 346
F. Noise 349
G. Conclusions 350
PART III: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Chapter 14: Integrated Environmental
Protection 355
A. Shared Resource Management 356
B. Transboundary Protected Areas and Landscapes 357
C. Ecosystem Protection and Management 358
1. The Polar Regions 358
2. Mountain Ecosystems 360
3. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems 363
D. Conclusions 366
Chapter 15: Human Rights and the
Environment 369
A. Introduction: Inter-relating Human Rights and Environmental
Protection 369
B. Human rights in International Environmental Law 371
1. The Right to Environmental
Information 372
2. Public Participation in Environmental Decision-Making 375
3. The Right to a Remedy for Environmental Harm 377
4. The Aarhus Convention 377
C. Environmental Protection in International Human Rights Law 379
1. Right to Life and Right to Health 380
2. Right to an Adequate Standard of Living and Fulfilment of Basic
Needs 382
3. Right to Privacy, Home and Family Life 385
4. Freedom of Association 389
5. Right to Property 389
6. Freedom of Information and Expression 389
7. The Right of Public Participation in Governance 391
8. The Right to a Remedy 391
9. Cultural and Minority Rights 392
D. The Right to a Safe and Healthy Environment 393
E. Indigenous Populations 398
F. Farmers’ Rights 401
G. Conclusions 402
Chapter 16: Environmental Protection
and Armed Conflict 407
A. Customary and Treaty Law of Armed Conflict 407
B. Environmental Claims and Damages in Armed Conflicts 412
C. Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice 417
D. Environmental Security and Conflict Prevention 419
Chapter 17: Environmental Protection
and Economic Activities 423
A. Poverty Reduction and Environmental Protection 423
B. International Debt 426
C. Private Economic Enterprises 427
D. Extraterritorial Application of National Laws 429
E. Trade and the Environment 431
1. GATT/WTO 432
2. NAFTA 438
3. Other Regional Economic Organizations 439
F. Conclusions 441
Conclusions 444